1.1 Basic composite theory 4 1.2 Polymer matrix composites 4 2. Designing with composites 6

5.1.4 Comparison of Resin Properties 20 5.1.5 Other Resin Systems used in Composites 23 5.2.1 Basic Properties of Fibres and Other Engineering Materials 25 5.4 Core materials for sandwich construction 40 6.7 Other Infusion Processes - SCRIMP RIFT, VARTM etc. 53 6.10 Resin Film Infusion (RFI) 56

7.1.4 Weak Boundary Layers 58 7.2 Pre-treatment prior to bonding 59 7.3.1 Epoxies and toughened epoxies 60 7.3.3 Acrylics and methacrylates structural adhesives 61 7.3.6 Heat Stable adhesives: Bismaleimides, polyimides, cyanate esters 61 8. Gelation, curing & post curing 63 9.1.7 Lamb Wave Sensing 66

Guide to Structural Composites Introduction To fully appreciate the role and application of composite materials to a structure, an understanding is required of the component materials themselves and of the ways in which they can be processed. This guide looks at basic composite theory, properties of materials used and then the various processing techniques commonly found for the conversion of materials into finished structures. 1.1 Basic Composite Theory In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at least two elements working together to produce material properties...

It is when the resin systems are combined with reinforcing fibres such as glass, carbon and aramid, that exceptional properties can be obtained. The resin matrix spreads the load applied to the composite between each of the individual fibres and also protects the fibres from damage caused by abrasion and impact. High strengths and stiffnesses, ease of moulding complex shapes, high environmental resistance all coupled with low densities, make the resultant composite superior to metals for many applications. Since PMC’s combine a resin system and reinforcing fibres, the properties of the resulting...

The geometry of the fibres in a composite is also important since fibres have their highest mechanical properties along their lengths, rather than across their widths. This leads to the highly anisotropic properties of composites, where, unlike metals, the mechanical properties of the composite are likely to be very different when tested in different directions. This means that it is very important when considering the use of composites to understand at the design stage, both the magnitude and the direction of the applied loads. When correctly accounted for, these anisotropic properties can be...

2.1.3 Shear Figure 3 shows a composite experiencing a shear load. This load is trying to slide adjacent layers of fibres over each other. Under shear loads the resin plays the major role, transferring the stresses across the composite. For the composite to perform well under shear loads the resin element must not only exhibit good mechanical properties but must also have high adhesion to the reinforcement fibre. The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of a composite is often used to indicate this property in a multi-layer composite (‘laminate’). Figure 3 – Shear loading 2.1.4 Flexure Flexural...

Strain to First Fibre/Resin Strain to Micro-crack Strain Failure Figure 5 -Typical FRP stress/strain graph The strain that a laminate can reach before microcracking depends strongly on the toughness and adhesive properties of the resin system. For brittle resin systems, such as most polyesters, this point occurs a long way before laminate failure, and so severely limits the strains to which such laminates can be subjected. As an example, tests have shown that for a polyester/glass woven roving laminate, micro-cracking typically occurs at about 0.2% strain with ultimate failure not occurring until...

Figure 6 - Typical Resin Stress/Strain Curves (Post-Cured for 5 hrs @ 80°C It should also be noted that when a composite is loaded in tension, for the full mechanical properties of the fibre component to be achieved, the resin must be able to deform to at least the same extent as the fibre. Figure 7 gives the strain to failure for E-glass, S-glass, aramid and high-strength grade carbon fibres on their own (i.e. not in a composite form). Here it can be seen that, for example, the S-glass fibre, with an elongation to break of 5.3%, will require a resin with an elongation to break of at least this...

2.3 Fibre orientation It is rare for fibres in a composite laminate to be perfectly aligned. Woven fabrics introduce a crimp to fibres which causes misalignment of load paths. Even non woven fabrics can suffer from some crimping around stitch points. The misalignment of fibres causes dramatic loss of mechanical properties, particularly in compression, due to increased likelihood of buckling. When using unidirectional fabrics, tapes or tows, it becomes critical to ensure accurate alignment of fibres during component manufacture to ensure loads are transferred efficiently and to maximize the advantages...

Based on RoM a composite property, Pc, can be estimated by: Pc = Pf Vf + PmVm = Pf Vf + Pm (1-Vf) where Pf & Pm = The property of fibre For example elastic modulus, E1, parallel to fibre direction can be calculated based on the Youngs modulus of each of the constituent materials: E1 =Ef Vf + Em Vm This equation is easily understood by considering the analogy of calculating the stiffness of 2 springs connected in parallel: Unit volume Stiffness representat ion Figure 8 – RoM model for longitudinal properties For the elastic modulus perpendicular to fibre direction the calculation becomes a little...

3.2 Laminate theory RoM formulae and models are useful for calculating the properties of single layers but more complex methodologies are required to enable characterisation of multi plied laminates. Laminate Plate Theory (LPT) is a complex but well established and accepted approach. Whilst too complicated to describe in detail here LPT describes the deformation of a laminate under external loading based on the properties of the fibre, matrix and the % of each in each axis of loading. It is logical and easily automated for incorporation into engineering models. It is quite obvious that mechanical...